What materials were biblical manuscripts written on?
Question 1113
The eternal Word of God came to us through very earthly materials. When prophets recorded divine revelation and apostles penned their letters, they used whatever writing surfaces were available in their day. Understanding these materials helps us appreciate both the humanity of Scripture’s transmission and the remarkable preservation of texts across millennia.
Papyrus: The Paper of the Ancient World
Papyrus (πάπυρος, papyros) was the most common writing material in the biblical world from ancient Egypt through the early Christian centuries. Made from the papyrus plant (Cyperus papyrus) that grew abundantly along the Nile, it served as the ancient equivalent of paper.
The manufacturing process was straightforward but labour-intensive. Workers cut the stalk of the papyrus plant into thin strips, laid them side by side vertically, then placed another layer horizontally on top. They pressed and dried these layers together, and the plant’s natural juices acted as glue. The result was a smooth, pale writing surface.
Papyrus was relatively inexpensive and widely available throughout the Mediterranean world. Paul’s letters were almost certainly written on papyrus, as were the original manuscripts of the Gospels. When Paul asked Timothy to bring “the books, and above all the parchments” (2 Timothy 4:13), he distinguished between his papyrus scrolls (βιβλία, biblia) and his more valuable parchment documents (μεμβράνας, membranas).
The British Museum houses numerous examples of ancient papyri, including fragments of classical literature and Egyptian administrative documents, which help scholars understand the writing practices of the biblical era. The museum’s collection of Greek literary papyri (particularly EA 10057-10058) demonstrates the physical characteristics of the material the early church used for copying Scripture.
Parchment and Vellum: The Durable Alternative
Parchment (περγαμηνή, pergamene, from Pergamum where it was perfected) was made from animal skins, typically sheep or goat. Vellum, a finer grade of parchment, came from calfskin. The preparation involved soaking the skins in lime, scraping off hair and flesh, stretching and drying them, then rubbing them smooth.
Parchment offered significant advantages over papyrus. It was far more durable, surviving in climates where papyrus would rot. It could be scraped and reused (creating palimpsests). Both sides could be written on easily. And it could be folded without cracking, making it ideal for the codex format that Christians favoured.
The expense of parchment, however, meant that it was reserved for important documents. A complete Bible required the skins of hundreds of animals. Codex Sinaiticus, for instance, originally contained about 730 leaves and would have required the skins of perhaps 360 sheep. Such manuscripts represented enormous investments of resources and labour.
By the 4th century, parchment had largely replaced papyrus for biblical manuscripts. Our great uncial codices, Sinaiticus and Vaticanus, are parchment volumes of remarkable quality. The transition reflected both the church’s growing resources and its desire to preserve Scripture in the most durable form available.
Other Writing Surfaces
Several other materials appear in the biblical record or in the manuscript tradition:
Stone: The Ten Commandments were written on stone tablets (לֻחֹת אֲבָנִים, luchot avanim) by the finger of God (Exodus 31:18). Stone inscriptions, while permanent, were obviously limited to short texts and immovable locations. Archaeological discoveries like the Siloam Inscription (now in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum) and the Moabite Stone (Louvre) demonstrate this practice.
Clay tablets: In Mesopotamia, clay tablets were the standard medium. Cuneiform writing impressed into wet clay and then dried or baked has survived for millennia. While not used for biblical manuscripts themselves, clay tablets provide important background material, including the famous Babylonian creation and flood accounts that help us understand the cultural context of Genesis.
Ostraca: Broken pieces of pottery (ostraca) served as cheap writing material for everyday purposes, like scrap paper today. Receipts, letters, and short notes were scratched or inked onto potsherds. The Lachish Letters, discovered in 1935 and dating to just before Jerusalem’s fall in 586 BC, are written on ostraca and provide poignant glimpses into the last days of Judah.
Metal: Occasionally, texts were inscribed on metal. The Dead Sea Scrolls included the famous Copper Scroll, listing the locations of hidden treasures. The tiny silver scrolls discovered at Ketef Hinnom near Jerusalem in 1979, dating to the 7th century BC, contain the oldest known biblical texts, the priestly blessing from Numbers 6:24-26.
Wax tablets: Romans commonly used wooden tablets coated with wax for temporary notes. A stylus scratched into the wax, which could then be smoothed and reused. When Zechariah asked for a writing tablet (πινακίδιον, pinakidion) to write “His name is John” (Luke 1:63), he likely received a wax tablet of this kind.
Writing Instruments and Inks
The materials used to write on papyrus and parchment were equally significant. Scribes used reed pens (κάλαμος, kalamos; see 3 John 13) cut to a point. The reed’s hollow structure held ink through capillary action.
Ink (μέλαν, melan, literally “black”; see 2 John 12; 2 Corinthians 3:3) was typically carbon-based, made from soot or lampblack mixed with gum arabic and water. This ink sat on the surface of papyrus and could be washed off if necessary. Later, iron gall ink, which bonded chemically with parchment, became more common. It was more permanent but could eat through the writing surface over time.
Conclusion
The variety of materials used for biblical manuscripts reminds us that God’s Word came through human hands using available technologies. Prophets and apostles did not receive their texts on golden plates dropped from heaven but wrote with reed pens on papyrus and parchment, just as their contemporaries did. Yet across these fragile materials, through centuries of copying and transmission, God’s Word has been preserved. The very earthiness of Scripture’s production makes its survival all the more remarkable and testifies to divine providence over the text.
“For whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that through endurance and through the encouragement of the Scriptures we might have hope.” Romans 15:4
Bibliography
- Aland, Kurt and Barbara Aland. The Text of the New Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989.
- Barkay, Gabriel. “The Priestly Benediction on Silver Plaques from Ketef Hinnom in Jerusalem.” Tel Aviv 19 (1992): 139-192.
- Comfort, Philip W. Encountering the Manuscripts: An Introduction to New Testament Paleography and Textual Criticism. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2005.
- Driver, G.R. Semitic Writing: From Pictograph to Alphabet. 3rd ed. London: Oxford University Press, 1976.
- Gamble, Harry Y. Books and Readers in the Early Church: A History of Early Christian Texts. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995.
- Kenyon, Frederic G. The Palaeography of Greek Papyri. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1899.
- Lewis, Naphtali. Papyrus in Classical Antiquity. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974.
- Thompson, Edward Maunde. An Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1912.
